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Saturday, October 17, 2009

Biotechnology—a sustainable alternative for chemical industry

Introduction
Among the major new technologies that have appeared since the 1970s, biotechnology
has perhaps attracted the most attention. Biotechnology has proved capable of generating
enormous wealth and influencing every significant sector of the economy. Biotechnology
has already substantially affected healthcare; production and processing of food;
agriculture and forestry; environmental protection; and production of materials and
chemicals. This review focuses on achievements and future prospects for biotechnology in
sustainable production of goods and services, specially those that are derived at present
mostly from the traditional chemical industry.


Defining industrial sustainability

"Industrial sustainability" aims to achieve sustainable production and processing
within the context of ecological and social sustainability. Sustainability and sustainable
development have had different meanings in different epochs and not everyone is
agreed on a common definition of these concepts. For the purpose of this review,
sustainable development is understood to mean b. . . a process of change in which the
exploitation of resources, the direction of investments, the orientation of technological
development, and institutional change are all in harmony and enhance both current and
future potential to meet human needs and aspirations. . . (It is) meeting the needs of
the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needsQ, as defined by World Commission on Environment and Development (Brundtland,
1987). Sustainable development requires a framework for integrating environmental
policies and development strategies in a global context (Hall and Roome, 1996).
Increasingly, sustainability considerations will shape future technological, socio-econom-
ic, political and cultural change to define the boundaries of what is acceptable


Role of biotechnology in sustainability

Biotechnology refers to an array of enabling technologies that are applicable to broadly
diverse industry sectors (Paugh and Lafrance, 1997; Liese et al., 2000). Biotechnology

comprises three distinct fields of activity, namely genetic engineering, protein engineering
and metabolic engineering. A fourth discipline, known variously as biochemical,
bioprocess and biotechnology engineering, is required for commercial production of
biotechnology products and delivery of its services. Of the many diverse techniques that
biotechnology embraces, none apply across all industrial sectors (Roberts et al., 1999;
Liese et al., 2000). Recognizing its strategic value, many countries are now formulating
and implementing integrated plans for using biotechnology for industrial regeneration, job
creation and social progress (Rigaux, 1997).
Biotechnology is versatile and has been assessed a key technology for a sustainable
chemical industry (Lievonen, 1999). Industries that previously never considered biological
sciences as impacting their business are exploring ways of using biotechnology to their
benefit. Biotechnology provides entirely novel opportunities for sustainable production of
existing and new products and services. Environmental concerns help drive the use of
biotechnology in industry, to not only remove pollutants from the environment but prevent
pollution in the first place. Biocatalyst-based processes have major roles to play in this
context. Biocatalysis operates at lower temperatures, produces less toxic waste, fewer
emissions and by-products compared to conventional chemical processes. New
biocatalysts with improved selectivity and enhanced performance for use in diverse
manufacturing and waste degrading processes (Abramovicz, 1990; Poppe and Novak,
1992; Roberts et al., 1999) are becoming available. In view of their selectivity, these
biocatalysts reduce the need for purifying the product from byproducts, thus reducing
energy demand and environmental impact. Unlike non-biological catalysts, biocatalysts
can be self-replicating.


The applications of biotechnology in the chemical industry

Commodity chemicals

At the basic level, life processes are chemical processes and understanding their
chemistry provides a basis for devising manufacturing operations that approach nature’s
elegance and efficiency. Biotechnology uses the power of life to enable effective, rapid,
safe and environmentally acceptable production of goods and services.

The chemical industry has used traditional biotechnological processes (e.g. microbial
production of enzymes, antibiotics, amino acids, ethanol, vitamins; enzyme catalysis) for
many years (Moo-Young, 1984; Poppe and Novak, 1992; Rehm et al., 1993; Chisti, 1999;
Flickinger and Drew, 1999; Herfried, 2000; Demain, 2000; Spier, 2000; Schmid, 2003). In
addition, traditional biotechnology is widely used in producing fermented foods and
treating waste (Nout, 1992; Moo-Young and Chisti, 1994; Jo¨ rdening and Winter, 2004).
Advances in genetic engineering and other biotechnologies have greatly expanded the
application potential of biotechnology and overcome many of the limitations of
biocatalysts of the preGMO era (Ranganathan, 1976; Liese et al., 2000; Schu¨ gerl and
Bellqardt, 2000). Chemical companies such as Monsanto and DuPont that were once
associated exclusively with traditional petrochemical based production methods have
either moved exclusively to biotechnology-based production, or are deriving significant
proportions of their income through biotechnology (Scheper, 1999; Bommarius, 2004).
Important commodity chemicals such as ethanol and cellulose esters are already sourced
from renewable agricultural feedstocks in the United States. New processes and renewable
resources for other commodity chemicals that are currently derived almost exclusively
from petrochemical feedstocks are in advanced stages of development. Examples of these
chemicals include succinic acid and ethylene glycol.
By the early 1990s biotechnology used for cleaner production was already contributing
about 60% of total biotechnology-related sales value for fine chemicals and between 5%
and 11% for pharmaceuticals (OECD, 1989). Some fine chemicals being manufactured in
multi-tonnage quantities using biotechnology are listed in Table 1 (Bruggink, 1996;
Eriksson, 1997). Nearly all these products have been around for a long time, but many are
now made using engineered biocatalysts.
Two major areas of biotechnology that are driving transformation of the conventional
chemical industry are biocatalysis and metabolic engineering (Poppe and Novak, 1992;
Kim et al., 2000). Genetic engineering and molecular biology techniques have been used
to obtain many modified enzymes with enhanced properties compared to their natural
counterparts. Metabolic engineering, or molecular level manipulation of metabolic
pathways in whole or part, is providing microorganisms and transgenic crops and animals
with new and enhanced capabilities for producing chemicals.
A future bioethanol based chemical industry, for example, will rely on biotechnology in
all of the following ways: (1) generation of high yield transgenic corn varieties having
starch that is readily accessible for enzymatic hydrolysis to glucose; (2) production of
engineered enzymes for greatly improved bioconversion of starch to sugars; (3) genetically
enhanced ethanol tolerant microorganisms that can rapidly ferment sugars to ethanol; (4)
ability to recover ethanol using high-efficiency low-expense bioprocessing.

Specialty and life science products

Biotechnology’s role in production of commodity chemicals is significant, but not as
visible as its role in production of agrochemicals and fine chemicals (Hsu, 2004). Many
renewable bioresources remain to be used effectively because they have been barely
studied. Flora and fauna of many of the world’s ecosystems have been barely investigated
for existence of novel compounds of potential value. For example, microalgae contribute
substantially to primary photosynthetic productivity on Earth, but are barely used


Table 1
Some well-established biotechnology products (by production volume)
Product Annual production (tons)
Bioethanol 26,000,000
l-Glutamic acid (MSG) 1,000,000
Citric acid 1,000,000
l-Lysine 350,000
Lactic acid 250,000
Food-processing enzymes 100,000
Vitamin C 80,000
Gluconic acid 50,000
Antibiotics 35,000
Feed enzymes 20,000
Xanthan 30,000
l-Threonine 10,000
l-Hydroxyphenylalanine 10,000
6-Aminopoenicillanic acid 7000
Nicotinamide 3000
d-p-hydroxyphenylglycine 3000
Vitamin F 1000
7-Aminocephalosporinic acid 1000
Aspartame 600
l-Methionine 200
Dextran 200
Vitamin B12 12
Provitamin D2 5

Introduction to evoulution of biotechnology

In the simplest and broadest sense, Biotechnology is a series of enabling
technologies, which involves the manipulation of living organisms or their subcellular
components to develop useful products, processes or services. Biotechnology
encompasses a wide range of fields, including the life sciences, chemistry,
agriculture, environmental science, medicine, veterinary medicine, engineering, and
computer science.

The manipulation of living organisms is one of the principal tools of modern
biotechnology. Although biotechnology in the broadest sense is not new, what
is new, however, is the level of complexity and precision involved in scientists’
current ability to manipulate living things, making such manipulation predictable,
precise, and controlled. The umbrella of biotechnology encompasses a broad array
of technologies, including recombinant DNA technology, embryo manipulation and
transfer, monoclonal antibody production, and bioprocess engineering, the principle
technology associated with the term is recombinant DNA technology or genetic
engineering. This technique can be used to enhance the ability of an organism to
produce a particular chemical product (penicillin from fungus), to prevent it from
producing a product (polygalacturanase in plant cells) or to enable an organism to
produce an entirely new product (insulin in microbes).
To date the greatest and most notable impact of biotechnology has been in the
medical and pharmaceutical arena. More than 325 million people worldwide have
been helped by the more than 155 biotechnology drugs and vaccines approved
by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Of the biotech medicines on
the market, 70 percent were approved in the last six years. There are more than
370 biotech drug products and vaccines currently in clinical trials targeting more
than 200 diseases, including various cancers, Alzheimer’s disease, heart disease,
diabetes, multiple sclerosis, AIDS and arthritis. The use of biotechnology to produce
molecules of therapeutic value constitutes an important advancement in medical
science. Medications developed through biotechnology techniques have earned the
approval of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for use in patients who have
cancer, diabetes, cystic fibrosis, hemophilia, multiple sclerosis, hepatitis B, and
Kaposi’s sarcoma. Biotechnology drugs are used to treat invasive fungal infections,
pulmonary embolisms, ischemic strokes, kidney transplant rejection, infertility,
growth hormone deficiency, and other serious disorders. Medications have also been
developed to improve the health of animals. Scientists are currently investigating
applications of advanced gene therapy, a technology that may one day be used to
pinpoint and rectify hereditary disorders.


Many of the products we eat, wear, and use are made using the tools of biotechnology.
Using genetic engineering, scientists are able to enhance agronomic traits
such as biotic and abiotic stress tolerance, growing season and yield, and output
traits such as processing, shelf life and the nutritional content, texture, color, flavor,
and other properties of production crops. Transgenic techniques are applied to
farmed animals to improve the growth, fitness, and other qualities of agriculturally
important mammals, poultry, and fish. Crops and animals can also be used as
production systems for the production of important pharmaceuticals and industrial
products. Enzymes produced using recombinant DNA methods are used to make
cheese, keep bread fresh, produce fruit juices, wines, treat fabric for blue jeans and
other denim clothing. Other recombinant DNA enzymes are used in laundry and
automatic dishwashing detergents.


We can also engineer microorganisms to improve the quality of our environment.
In addition to the opportunities for a variety of new products, including
biodegradable products, bioprocessing using engineered microbes and enzymes
offers new ways to treat and use wastes and to use renewable resources as feedstocks
for materials and fuel. Instead of depending on non-renewable fossil fuels we can
engineer organisms to convert maize and cereal straw, forest products and municipal
waste and other biomass to produce fuel, bioplastics and other useful commodities.
Naturally occurring microorganisms are being used to treat organic and inorganic
contaminants in soil, groundwater, and air. This application of biotechnology has
created an environmental biotechnology industry important in water treatment,
municipal waste management, hazardous waste treatment, bioremediation, and other
areas. DNA fingerprinting, a biotech technique, has dramatically improved criminal
investigation and forensic medicine, as well as afforded significant advances in
anthropology and wildlife management.
This book will aim to cover the history of biotech the tools and applications
across time and disciplines and look to future potential at the confluence of
technologies.



BIOTECHNOLOGY INDUSTRY PATENTS
The US Patent and Trademark Office (PTO) has responded to the growing demand
for patents by the biotechnology industry by increasing the number and sophistication
of biotechnology patent examiners. In FY 1988, the PTO had 67 patent
examiners. By 1998, the number of biotech examiners more than doubled to 184.
Statistics provided by BIO organization
Source: U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, Technology Profile Report, Patent
Examining Technology Center, Groups 1630–1650, Biotechnology 1/1977 – 1/1998,
April 1999

Wednesday, August 5, 2009

Job Opportunities biotechnology

Biotechnology is a knowledge based industry requiring manpower that has the right combination of understanding of technology as well as managerial expertise to harvest technology into profit making ventures. It is emerging as one of the fastest growing employment sectors in India today, promising a plethora of job opportunities under its umbrella. Demand for biotechnologists is growing in India and abroad, particularly the US.

According to KiranMajumdarShaw, Chairperson and Managing Director of Biocon Industry, "The fledging biotechnology industry in India has crossed the $1 billion mark and is moving towards the targeted $5 billion by 2010 and this industry which is growing at pace is facing shortage of skilled manpower .n The sector employed 4200 graduates and postgraduates, 1700 B.Tech/MBAs, 1900 M.Tech. and M.Phils, 400 Ph.Ds, 700 others during 2003-04 (Source: Biospectrum-ABLE Survey).

A career in Biotechnology is both challenging and rewarding. Challenging, because it is comparatively a new field and involves a lot of experimentation, research, hard work, and creative approach. Those expecting quick results from the experiments and research done by them, may have to face disappointment, in case their efforts take longer time or may not prove successful.


Some of the jobs are that of Technicians, Research and Development Specialists, Scientists, Production Managers, Quality Control Managers, Marketing and Sales Personnels, Logistics etc.

To be a technician in an industry or a research institute, you should be a B.Sc in Biotechnology. Similarly, if you have completed your M.5c in Biotechnology, you may go for a research assistant both in industry as well as in R&D (Research and Development) institutes. Both public and private sector offer ample job opportunities in this field. If you are looking for a job in public sector, the opportunities available are in administration and policy making, research and development and technical cadre

A person with aptitude for research can go for research and development institutes established by different ministries. If one is not interested in hard core research, but still wants to be associated with research can go for supporting staff (technical assistant) after B.Sc. in biotechnology.

The job profile of a technician is to maintain small equipments, weigh raw materials, maintain records and clean production areas etc. For a manufacturing technician, profile consists of manufacturing and packaging of potential and existing products and if you are instrumentation technician, you need to maintain instruments/ equipments

Product Development Officer is responsible for design, development of a given product. Documentation Officer handles all activities relates to provide required document. He also needs to review and revise procedures, specifications and forms.

As a Bioinformatics specialist, your prime field of work would include designing, developing, evaluating and modifying computer for solving a protein structure and design programmes to resolve 3­dimensional structures of molecules, analyse existing systems and formulate logic for new systems.

Market Research Analyst is entrusted the job to research and analyse company's markets, competition and product mix. As a sales rep, you are responsible for providing product information and demonstration on as and when required. As the name suggests, the job of a HP Manager is to handle the activities related to employment, coordinate training programmes, counselling, etc.

After doing Ph.D you can also be appointed as a Research Associate, Pool Officer, Research Scientist etc. in various Government funded organisations like Centre for Scientific & Industrial Research, Department of Science & Technology, Department of Biotechnology, etc. programmes which support such programmes, before you get settled in a position of your choice. Duration of these jobs is normally from two to three years. You are paid emoluments ranging from Rs.8000 p.m. to Rs.10,500 p.m. plus House Rent Allowance, as per rules.

Depending upon your qualifications, research aptitude and experience. lucrative pay package is offered in India and abroad. Some of the Biotech and related companies in India are mentioned in Appendix III.

Qualifications and Personal Attributes

As a prerequisite for entering the field of Biotechnology, you need to be a science graduate and must have studied Biology, Physics, and Chemistry, Agriculture or have engineering background. Besides; interest in academics and research, creativity and an inquisitive bent of mind is essential for a successful career in Biotechnology.
Further, the work of Biotechnologists often involves working in a team. Liking and ability to get along comfortably with colleagues is necessary to forge ahead in this field. In addition, in order to keep yourself abreast of latest scientific researches and developments, particularly those related to your field of work, reading habit and liking for browsing on internet would be required. Those being introvert in nature are better suited for the job as compared to extroverts.

Where to study biotechnology ?

You can study Biotechnology at Undergraduate level (B.Sc/B.E/B.Tech, 5-year integrated B.Tech./M.Tech) and at PG level (M.Sc/M. Tech) and pursue specialised courses at research level. or After graduating in Chemistry, Physics, Biology, Microbiology, you can take admission in Post graduate courses. (Details of most of the institutes and courses offered by them have been included in this publication).
Those interested to go for PhD abroad, have to qualify GRE and TOEFL exams. After obtaining scores for these exams with you, you can apply to various universities for admission. (Details about Scholarships/Fellowships have also been included in the relevant chapter.)

After completing your Ph.D you can "go for Post-doctoral research abroad. For this purpose you need to built up a good track record and published PhD research work and then you can apply to various universities/ and individual professors. In this regard you can refer to advertisements usually published in International Science Journals like Nature, Science, New Scientist, Scientific American etc. You may be offered contractual assignments ranging from one to three years on temporary basis.

Branches and Application of Biotechnology


Branches and Application of Biotechnology
Today, Biotechnology is a multidisciplinary activity involving chemists, biologists, engineers and many other specialists. Its scope is enormous. There are sophisticated new drugs produced in the milk of transgenic sheep, microbial cocktails that can clean up contaminated land transgenic plants and fish that yield more food or resist disease - and hundreds of different micro-organisms able to produce fermentation products such as amino acids, vitamins, enzymes and antibiotics.

It is playing a major role in serving the mankind. Be it in forms of improved plant varieties or developing vaccines. It is widely used in food industry, enabling cattle to grow faster and produce new enzymes for making cheese. Some of the prominent areas of its application are given below:

Generally Biotechnology Classes Below:
Red Biotech: is applied to medical processes. Some examples are the designing of organisms to produce antibiotics, and the engineering of genetic cures through genomic manipulation.

White/Grey Biotech: applied to industrial processes. An example is the designing of an organism to produce a useful chemical.

Green Biotech: applied to agricultural processes. An example is the designing of transgenic plants to grow under specific environmental conditions or in the presence (or absence) of certain agricultural chemicals.

Blue Biotech: used to describe the marine and aquatic applications of biotechnology, but its use is relatively rare.

Biotechnology Products Below:
Antibiotics
Bt Corn
Transgenic plants and Animals
Pesticides


Applied Biology below:
Agronomy
Agrometeorology
Agri-environmental sciences
Applied genomics
Applied metabolomics
Applied proteomics
Biological control
Crop ecology
Entomology
Molecular biology
Mycology
Nematology
Plant pathology
Plant breeding & genetics
Plant physiology
Post harvest biology
Soil science
Statistics
Virology
Weed biology

You are better off if you go to the Website called "The Association of Applied Biology " below...

http://www.aab.org.uk/contentok.php?id=301

Elaborate details:

Agriculture
In this sector biotechnology has contributed in the following improvements: Development of crop, fruit varieties with higher yield great resistance to stresses and higher nutritional value, increasing efficiency of nitrogen fixation in plants: Vaccine production from plants.

Animal Husbandry
This sector broadly covers: Development of improved breed of animals with higher milk production, Higher animal productivity and with other desirable characteristic, animal feed, embryo transfer, developing vaccines etc.

Health care (also termed as Medical Biotechnology)
Application: Development of genetically engineered vaccines, DNA Fingerprinting, immunodiagonstic Kits for early detection of diseases, Gene profiling, antibiotics, Skin grafting etc.

Industry
Application: Industrial Biotechnology has a wide range of application, such as extraction of metals by microbial methods, enrichment of ores etc. It plays a vital role in food processing and beverage industry, etc.
Energy Sector
Application: Production tissue cultured biomass, biogas production.

Aquaculture and Marine biotechnology
Application: It helps in generating new classes of pharmaceuticals, polymers, enzymes and many other chemical products. It is also helpful in Aquaculture, Transgenics, Fish production, Bioremedation, conservation, sea weeds culture etc.

Environmental Biotechnology
Application: It helps in Biodegradation of xenobiotic compounds, Bio-mining, Restoration of denuded areas, Bio-sensors, processing of wastes, Composting, Anaerobic processing, etc.

Bioinformatics
Biotechnology Information System
Recognizing the importance of the information technology for pursuing advanced research in modern biology and biotechnology, a bioinformatics programme, envisaged as a distributed database and network organization, was launched during 1986-87. The programme has become a very successful vehicle for transfer and exchange of knowledge, information, technology packages and references in the country involving 8-10 thousand scientists.


Some more Details for ur convenience
Ten Distributed Information Centres and 38 Sub-Distributed Information Centres located in universities and research institutions are fully engaged in this task. Five national facilities have been set up for interactive graphics based molecular modelling and other biocomputational needs. The entire network has emerged as very sophisticated scientific infrastructure for bioinformatics involving state-of-the art computational and communication facilities.


The computer communication network, linking all the bioinformatics centres, is playing a vital role in the success of the bioinformatics programme. Database development, R&D activities in bioinformatics, human resource development and a variety of services in support of biotechnology R&D programmes and projects, has made the programme very popular and useful o the scientific community.

Bioinformatics deals with the various issues related to the biological data. It also covers the development of data analysis tools, modelling of biological macromolecules and their complexes, metabolic pathways, designing of new molecules such as drugs, peptide vaccines, proteins, etc. Gradually, Bioinformatics has evolved to deal with four related but still distinct problem areas, viz.
Handling and management of biological data, including its organization, control, linkages, analysis and so forth.


Communication among people, projects and institutions engaged in the biological research and applications. The communication may include e-mail, file transfer, remote login, computer conferencing, electronic bulletin boards, or establishment of web­-based information resources.

Organization, access, search and retrieval of biological information, documents and literature.
Analysis and interpretation of the biological data through the computational approaches including visualization, mathematical modelling and development of algorithms for highly parallel processing of complex biological structures.

Bioinformatics may, therefore, be defined as a scientific discipline that encompasses all the aspects of biological information, viz., acquisition, processing, storage, distribution, analysis and interpretation, that combines the tools and techniques of mathematics, computer science and biology with the aim of understanding the biological significance of a variety of data.

India - a notable area for biotech expansion

India is amongst the emerging forces in the biotech world with potential to become a leading player in the Asia Pacific region, according to a report by Ernst & Young. The report identified India as a 'notable area for biotech expansion.
The report referred to Asia as a growing hotbed for biotech­-related research and development, with over 500 biotech companies in the region. The international biotech community is aware of Indian scientific skill sets, which, according to experts, would be the determining factor in biotechnology, wrote Darlington Jose Hector.

In brief, developments in the field of Biotechnology, have taken place in the following areas: Bioinformatics; Agricultural biotechnology; Bio­fertilizers; National Bioresource Development; Plant Biotechnology; Bioprospecting; Animal biotechnology; Seri-biotechnology; Aquaculture & Marine Biotechnology; Environmental Biotechnology; Medical biotechnology; Food Biotechnology; Microbial and Industrial Biotechnology; Medicinal and Aromatic Plants; Basic Biotechnology; Biosafety; Biotech Parks, Mission mode Programmes; Biological Control; International Collaboration; Biotechnology for Societal Development; Autonomous Institutions.